With the expansion of trade networks, society gradually adopts metal as a medium of exchange due to its durability and ease of segmentation. In the Zhou Dynasty of China (around 1000 BC), metal currency appeared in the form of small bronze tools and imitations of cast shells. By the 7th century BC, India, China, and the Aegean region had independently developed true currencies. Indian currency is made of perforated metal plates, while Chinese currency is made of cast bronze coins, usually with holes for easy connection. In Anatolia, the Kingdom of Lydia introduced the first standardized currency, with its metal content certified by seals. This innovation marks the unification of the value storage and exchange medium functions of currency, while allowing the state to regulate the money supply and profit through seigniorage. The transition from commodity exchange to metallic currency significantly expanded long-distance trade, such as the Athenian silver coins supporting imperial expansion and widespread circulation, while Chinese bronze coins helped unify the East Asian market.
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